Right Did You Mean Right?

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For the direction right, see left and right or starboard. For the political trend or ideology, see Right-wing politics.

The following article discusses the notion of rights in matters of philosophy and Law.

"Claim" redirects here. For other uses, see Claim (other meanings).

Rights
Civil rights
Collective rights
Human rights
Inalienable rights
Individual rights
Natural rights
Negative rights
Positive rights
Social rights

A right is the power or privilege to which one is justly entitled or a thing to which one has a just claim. Many different types of rights have been described. Many of these terms describe overlapping concepts, and are often used interchangeably.

Human rights refers to the concept of human beings as having universal rights, or status, regardless of legal jurisdiction, and likewise other localizing factors, such as ethnicity and nationality.

Inalienable rights (or unalienable rights) refers to a set of absolute rights that are endowed by God, not awarded by any human power and not capable of being repudiated or transfered to another power. The phrase is most famously used in the United States Declaration of Independence, where "unalienable rights" are said to include "Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."

Natural rights exist as inherent ethical realities permitting persons to do certain things. Natural rights are based on natural law.

Civil rights are the protections and privileges of personal liberty given to all citizens by law.

Contractual rights are those based on laws agreed upon between persons for whom those laws are valid. A contractual right is a claim, on other persons, that is acknowledged and perhaps reciprocated among the principals associated with that claim. Specialized contractual rights exist as part of a "contract" or agreement between persons to whom these rights belong. One concept of rights is a principle of interaction between people which amounts to the simplest version of the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"). In other words, it is a mutually beneficial agreement between two or more people; each of them agrees to behave in a certain way towards the others so that they will behave in the same way towards him or her. Other concepts of rights do not necessarily involve this reciprocal supportiveness. Since ancient times there has existed a belief that parents are owed, as a right, the respect of their children. Similarly, the marriage ceremony is believed by many to confer rights upon the two parties in exchange for thus bonding their lives to each other. The move to making contractual rights mutual and equal is relatively modern. In ancient times contractual rights were often more one-sided, the rights of a father to be respected by his son didn't necessarily indicate a duty upon the father to return that respect. Even today, when we are so familiar with the concept of equal rights and mutual respect in society, the rights of children remain in dispute.

There is an important distinction to be made between positive rights, which oblige others in some way, and negative rights, which free oneself from obligation or coercion. In most views of law, it is not generally considered necessary that a right should be understood by a holder of that right, thus rights may be agreed on behalf of another, such as children's rights or the rights of people declared mentally incompetent to understand their rights. However, rights must be understood by somebody in order to have legal existence, so the understanding of rights is a social prerequisite for the existence of rights. Therefore, educational opportunities within society have a close bearing upon the people's ability to erect adequate rights structures.

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Legal rights

In modern English and European systems of jurisprudence and law, a right is the legal or moral entitlement to do or refrain from doing something or to obtain or refrain from obtaining an action, thing or recognition in civil society. Compare with duty, referring to behaviour that is expected or required of the citizen, and with privilege, referring to something that can be conferred and revoked. The specific enumeration of rights accorded to citizens has historically differed greatly from one century to the next, and from one regime to the next, but nowadays is normally addressed by the constitutions of the respective nations.

Generally speaking (within the English and European systems) a right corresponds with a complementary obligation that others have on the same object or realm; for instance if someone has a right on a thing, simultaneously another party or parties have an obligation to do something (or to abstain from doing something) in order to respect that right or to give concrete execution to that right. Property rights provide a good example: society recognizes that individuals have title to particular property as defined by the transaction by which they acquired the property granting the individual free use and possession of the property. In many cases, especially regarding ideological and similar rights, the obligation depends on the legal system in its entirety, or on the state, or on the generical universality of other subjects submitted to the law.

The right can therefore be a faculty of doing something, of omitting or refusing to do something or of claiming something. Some interpretations express a typical form of right in the faculty of using something, and this is more often related to the right of property. The faculty (in all the above mentioned senses) can be originated by a (generical or specific) law, or by a private contract (which is sometimes exactly defined as a specific law between or among volunteer parties).

Other interpretations consider the right as a sort of freedom of something or as the object of justice. One of the definitions of justice is in fact the obligation that the legal system has toward the individual or toward the collectivity to grant respect or execution to his/her/its right, ordinarily with no need of explicit claim.

Aristotle, in the Nicomachean Ethics (book five), claims that there is a large difference between written (generalized) justice and what is actually right for the (specific) individual.

(10-3) "But what obscures the matter is that though what is equitable is just, it is not identical with, but a correction of, that which is just according to law."

(10-4) "The reason of this is that every law is laid down in general terms, while there are matters about which it is impossible to speak correctly in general terms. Where, then, it is necessary to speak in general terms, but impossible to do so correctly, the legislator lays down that which holds good for the majority of cases, being quite aware that it does not hold good for all."

"The law, indeed, is none the less correctly laid down because of this defect; for the defect lies not in the law, nor in the lawgiver, but in the nature of the subject-matter, being necessarily involved in the very conditions of human action."

Rights can be divided into individual rights, that are held by citizens as individuals (or corporations) recognised by the legal system, and collective rights, held by an ensemble of citizens or a subgroup of citizens who have a certain characteristic in common. In some cases there can be an amount of tension between individual and collective rights. In other cases, the view of collective and individual rights held by one group can come into sharp and bitter conflict with the view of rights held by another group. For instance compare Manifest destiny with Trail of Tears.

With reference to the object of the right, a common general distinction is among:

intellectual rights, which include:
- civil rights
- religious rights
- rights of opinion

real rights (from the Latin word "res", thing), which include:
- property rights
- rights of use
- liberties

Particular systems can (or could in the past) include special rights like:

fief rights, which included:
- economical rights (like the right to collect taxes)
- performance rights (like the jus primae noctis or corvee)

Important documents

Magna Carta (1215; England)
- Required the king to renounce certain rights and respect certain legal procedures, and to accept that the will of the king could be bound by law.
Bill of Rights 1689 (England)
- Declared that Englishmen, as embodied by Parliament, possess certain civil and political rights that can not be taken away.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789; France)
- One of the fundamental documents of the French Revolution, defining a set of individual rights and collective rights of the people.
United States Bill of Rights (1789/1791)
- The first ten amendments of the United States Constitution.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
- An over-arching set of standards by which Governments, organisations and individuals would measure their behaviour towards each other. The preamble declares that the
"w/.recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the worldw/."
- Other general Declarations from the UN have followed, notably the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 1.
European Convention on Human Rights (1950)
- Adopted under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms.
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982)
- Its purpose is to protect rights of Canadian citizens from actions and policies of all levels of government.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000)

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