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Have to see Contents 1 General Features of Creoles 2 Arabic creoles 2.1 Nubi 2.2 Juba Arabic 2.3 Babalia Creole Arabic 3 Native American creoles 4 Dutch creoles 5 English Creoles 5.1 Singlish 5.2 Bislama 5.3 Gullah 5.4 Hawaiian Creole English 5.5 Krio 5.6 Kriol 5.7 Miskito Creole English 5.8 Pitkern, Norfuk 5.9 Sranan Tongo 5.10 Tok Pisin 5.11 Torres Strait Creole 5.12 Hibradin Krayolle 6 French Creoles 6.1 Haitian creole 6.2 Antillean Creole 6.3 Kreyol Lwiziyen 6.4 Mauritian Creole 6.5 Réunion Creole 6.6 Seychellois Creole 6.7 Lanc-Patuá 7 German Creoles 7.1 Unserdeutsch 8 Malay Creoles 9 Ngbandi-based Creoles 10 Portuguese Creoles 10.1 Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole 10.2 Creoles of Cape Verde 10.3 Creoles of India 10.4 Creoles of São Tomé and Príncipe 10.5 Annobonnese 10.6 Upper Guinea Creole 10.7 Macanese 10.8 Kristang 10.9 Papiamento 11 Portuguese/English Creole 11.1 Saramaccan 12 Spanish Creoles 13 References Italian FriendFinder - Italian Personals FriendFinder - Traditional Personals Asia FriendFinder - Chinese Personals Filipino FriendFinder - Filipino Personals OutPersonals - Gay Sex Personals Gay FriendFinder - Gay Dating Personals ALT.com - Fetish AND1 BDSM Personals Korean FriendFinder - Korean Personals Senior FriendFinder - 40+ Personals German FriendFinder - German Personals BigChurch - Christian/Catholic Personals Indian FriendFinder - Indian Personals French FriendFinder - French Personals Jewish FriendFinder - Jewish Personals Amigos.com - Spanish/Portuguese Personals Adult FriendFinder - Sex Personals

A Creole is a language descended from a pidgin that has become the native language of a group of people. The majority of creole languages are based on English, Portuguese, French, Spanish and other languages (their superstrate language), with local or immigrant languages as substrate languages.

Pidgins are rudimentary languages improvised by non-native speakers; when pidgins creolize, however, they develop fully-formed and stable grammar structures, usually as a result of the pidgin being natively learned by children (see Nicaraguan Sign Language). In some cases the group of people who speak such a language are called Creoles.

General Features of Creoles

Main article: Syntactic similarities of creoles

Study of Creole languages around the world (in particular by Derek Bickerton) has suggested that they display remarkable similarities in grammar and are developed uniformly from pidgins in a single generation, lending support to the theory of a Universal Grammar; critics, however, argue that his examples are largely drawn from creoles derived from European languages, and that non-European-based creoles such as Nubi or Sango display fewer similarities.

Even considering only creoles from European languages, the similarities in grammatical structure are striking, especially considering that they evolved in communities which were isolated from one another. For example, these creoles tend to have similar usage patterns for definite and indefinite articles, and similar movement rules for phrase structures.

Below are described some of the better-known creoles.

Arabic creoles

Nubi

An Arabic-based creole spoken by descendants of Sudanese soldiers mainly in Kenya and Uganda, formed in the nineteenth century from a Sudanese Arabic-based pidgin used for intercommunication among southern Sudanese ethnic groups. See also Varieties of Arabic.

Juba Arabic

A major language of inter-ethnic communication in Equatoria (southern Sudan), creolized from the same pidgin Arabic as Ki-Nubi.

Babalia Creole Arabic

A Shuwa Arabic-based creole spoken in 23 villages of the Chari-Baguirmi Prefecture in southwestern Chad; the substrate language was Berakou.

Native American creoles

Dutch creoles

In Guyana, the two Dutchased creoles Berbice Dutch Creole and Skepi Dutch Creole were formerly widespread; the latter is extinct, and the former declining fast. In the US Virgin Islands, Negerhollands, now extinct, was also a Dutch-based creole. There is also a Dutch-influenced creole spoken in Netherlands Antilles, called Papiamento, but it is originally a Portuguese-based creole.

English Creoles

Singlish

Singlish is a creole based on British English. It originated in Singapore, and spread to parts of Malaysia. It is a mixture of mainly Malay, Mandarin, Hokkien (a Chinese dialect), Tamil (a south Indian Dravidian language), and British English.

Bislama

Bislama (older Bêche-la-mar) is an English-based creole, and is the national language of Vanuatu.

Gullah

Gullah is an English-based creole spoken in the Sea Islands and the adjacent coastal regions of South Carolina, Georgia and northern Florida.

Hawaiian Creole English

Hawaiian Pidgin began as a pidgin jargon used in the early European colonization of the Hawaiian Islands. English served as the superstrate language, with Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and Hawaiian elements incorporated. Children started using it as a lingua franca, and by the 20's it had creolized and become a minor language of Hawaii, as it still is today.

Krio

Spoken in Sierra Leone.

Kriol

Also known as Roper River Creole, has become the major non-English language among Aboriginal Australians with over 10,000 first language speakers.

Miskito Creole English

From contact of Miskito Indians of the coasts of Nicaragua and the Honduras with the British. Spoken in the coastal areas. Also known as NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA CREOLE ENGLISH

Pitkern, Norfuk

Spoken exclusively by the inhabitants of the Pitcairn Islands and Pitcairnese migrants in Norfolk Island, an 18th century dialect of English is spoken with the Tahitian language to form the Creole language known as Pitkern, or Norfuk in Norfolk Island.

Sranan Tongo

in Suriname.

Tok Pisin

is spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. English is the superstrate language, with various Papuan languages providing grammatical and lexical input.

Torres Strait Creole

Spoken by Torres Straits Islanders.

Hibradin Krayolle

Spoken in the Deep South of the United States. It relies heavily on Scots English, Gaelic, English, French, Cherokee and Carribean Creoles of Northern Florida. This Creole was spoken by the groups of early immigrants from the Western Isles of Scotland (Hebrides) to the Southern states of the USA (The Carolinas, Alabama, Northern Mississippi and Tennessee). It relies heavily on Scottish-Gaelic for the lexicon and on a Franco-German patois for the noun usage but uses Carolinian Cherokee for adjectives. A varient of this was believed to have been spoken in the ancient Scottish colony of Dalriada (near modern day Panama and Honduras) except with a Spannish-Portugeus patois instead of the Franco-German one and an Amerindian one instead of Cherokee but retaining the Northern Carribean Creole.

French Creoles

Haitian creole

or Kreyol ayisyen, is a language spoken primarily in Haiti. French is its superstrate language, with numerous African languages and some local indigenous languages providing substrate input.

Antillean Creole

is a language spoken primarily in the French (and some of the English) Lesser Antilles, such as Martinique, Guadeloupe, Dominica, St. Lucia and many other smaller islands. Although all of the creoles spoken the these islands are considered to be the same language, there are noticible differences between the dialects of each island.

Kreyol Lwiziyen

Louisiana creole, spoken mainly by African American Creoles in Louisiana.

Mauritian Creole

Spoken as the lingua franca in Mauritius

Réunion Creole

Spoken on Réunion Island.

Seychellois Creole

Also known as Seselwa, Seychellois Creole is an official language, along with English and French, as well as the lingua franca of the Seychelles.

Lanc-Patuá

Spoken in Brazil, mostly in Amapá state. It has influenced by Portuguese as a substrate. It was developed by immigrants from neighboring French Guiana and French territories of Caribbean Sea.

German Creoles

Unserdeutsch

or Rabaul Creol German. Unserdeutsch means "our German". It is a language spoken primarily in Papua New Guinea and the northeast of Australia and almost extinct. It was formed among the New Guinean children residing in a German-run orphanage. Only a few native speakers are still alive. ISO-Code 639-2: crp

Malay Creoles

For further information, see on Malay Creole

Ngbandi-based Creoles

Sango, the national language of the Central African Republic, is considered by many linguists to be a Ngbandi-based creole with some French influence. Other linguists do not regard it as a creole.

Portuguese Creoles

Main article: Portuguese Creole

There are several Portuguese Creoles:

Sri Lanka Portuguese Creole

Also known as Sri Lanka Portuguese (Creole). Spoken in Sri Lanka, local languages are the substrate.

Creoles of Cape Verde

Spoken in Cape Verde, at least, two creoles. Some locals refer 10 different creoles, one for each inhabited island and two for the island of Santiago. Several African substrate languages.

Creoles of India

Various creoles were largely spoken in India, the remaining are under threat: Crioulo de Diu, Crioulo de Vaipim, Língua da Casa and Kristi.

Creoles of São Tomé and Príncipe

Three different Creole languages are spoken in São Tomé and Príncipe, all based in Portuguese: Forro, Lunguyê and Lungua N'golá, several African languages work as substrate. Lunga N'Golá is based on Bantu languages.

Annobonnese

Language of the island of Annobón, Equatorial Guinea, related to Forro from São Tomé and Príncipe.

Upper Guinea Creole

Ancient creole and the first Portuguese creole. Also known as Crioulo it is spoken in Guinea-Bissau and Senegal the local African languages are the substrate. Divided into three dialectal groups. It is the Lingua franca of Guinea-Bissau.

Macanese

Spoken in Macao, and Hong-Kong. Chinese, Malay and Indian languages as substrate. Also influenced by English, Spanish, and Japanese.

Kristang

Spoken in Malacca, Malaysia. Malay is substrate.

Papiamento

Spoken in Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire, the Dutch West Indies. Spanish influenced.

Portuguese/English Creole

Saramaccan

Spoken in Suriname; of all creoles, it is one of the most divergent from its source languages. It has developed tones. Linguists dispute whether it is a heavily English-influenced Portuguese creole, supported by SIL Surinam and Ian Hancock; or a somewhat Portuguese-influenced English creole; the latter view is supported by Derek Bickerton and John McWhorter. It is heavily influenced by Kongo and Gbe.

Spanish Creoles

For information on Spanish-based Creole languages see Spanish Creole.

References

Bickerton, Derek (1981). Roots of Language, Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-044-6

Bickerton, Derek (1983). Creole Languages. Scientific American 249(8): 116-122.

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